Applying LearningTheories and Perspectives: SEVEN ID PRINCIPLES and their RELATIONSHIP TO LEAR...

Applying LearningTheories and Perspectives: SEVEN ID PRINCIPLES and their RELATIONSHIP TO LEAR...: "By Julia Augustin Charlery An underlying goal of pursuing this course is definitely to improve teaching and learning skills or both. I wa..."

The Brain, Learning and Information Processing

By Julia Augustin-Charlery

Learning and the Brain in the News

This course puts us right on target with current events of learning and the brain. Dr.Coch has been awarded the third annual prize for transforming education through neuroscience. On November 20th, 2011 this Associate Professor and chair of the Department of Education at Dartmouth College has made members of the education arena proud by making a meaningful connection between education psychology and neuroscience in her research. Kurt Fischer, the director of the Mind, Brain and education program at Harvard Graduate School of Education has commended Dr. Coch for contributing to ground breaking research to illuminate the development of reading and literacy.

This is a must-read article for all educators who are constantly challenged to create instructions for assisting learners with reading difficulties. Several professors have joined in to congratulate Dr. Coch for her outstanding contributions to this emerging field of mind, brain and education during both her research and teaching experiences. Future Instructional Designers must embrace this type of progress for her research can help us to apply her findings of hard science such as EMRI’s, to the improvement of classroom teaching and learning. To find out more about this historic progress in education go to  http://learningandthebrain.com/

The Information Processing Approach to Cognition

       The Learning process is a complex process the task of translating learning theory into practical applications poses great challenges for instructional designers. An overview of the cognitive system from Education Psychology Interactive (Huitt, W., 2003) with focus of information storage and retrieval declares the “stage theory” as the most widely accepted theory which has been presented in a model.

      Three cognitive psychology models, namely, the stage theory, levels-of-processing theory, parallel distributing processing and connectionistic are presented with a description of how information is stored in the brain. This article provides an illustration of the Stage model of information processing which is quite explicit. A short glossary of terms will facilitate better understanding of new concepts that relate to long term memory. Finally Gagne’s nine steps of Events of Instruction are presented with strategies for using the information processing approach in the classroom. I would suggest that we all print a copy for further reference. Learn more from  http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cogsys/infoproc.html .

SEVEN ID PRINCIPLES and their RELATIONSHIP TO LEARNING THEORIES

By Julia Augustin Charlery

An underlying goal of pursuing this course is definitely to improve teaching and learning skills or both. I was exhilarated to discover that some of my classmates had actually subscribed to the article “Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education” by Arthur W. Chickering and Zelda F. Gamson from the American Association for Higher Education. I am sure that you will agree that they can reflect any level of education. To guide you through the relevance of this article to your ID intention, I have attempted to revise these seven general principles and relate them to the learning theories and perspectives to suit the needs of instructional designers due to their usefulness for any level. The original principles have all been retained but the rational aligned to each one provides recommendations for differ.

1.    Encourages contact between students and faculty.

      While the extent to which this principle is practiced might be an issue for some but others may simply want to know that it is present in the learning environment. Gagne’s (1916-1999) condition of learning theory included nine steps which dealt with the development of information for different learning processes. One of these steps suggests that learning could be more effective when learner guidance if provided. In online learning environment, we have evidence of tutor contact through email, chat room and question and answer section. One may ague that this step is an event of instruction merely for the classroom setting but the perspective of Vygotsky (1896-1934)  justifies that with a belief that the influence of ones social surrounding was imperative to learning and development of thought”. An environment where students feel free to address issues relating to their goals, challenges and short comings can enhance motivation and involvement in learning activities rather than feeling shut out. On the other hand, an elaborative and informal manner of achieving this contact may sometimes be destructive rather than constructive. An old saying “being friendly but not familiar”, should remind students of their limits with faculty.

2.   Develops reciprocity and cooperation among students.

 Using Vygotsky theory again but this time with the “Zone of Proximal Development” (ZPD), the difference between what an individual can do with or without assistance, is said to determine ones optimal learning ability. In addition, Laureate Education Inc. (2009) has cited Wood et al (1995) who considers that the approach of social constructivists is an alternative to learning by discovery.  When children are allowed to work in small groups, they are more likely to develop their own ways of solving problems. These social learning interactions incorporate meaningful ways of idea sharing, deepening understanding and sharpening thinking skills. Subscribing to each others blog for the ID course, should keep us mindful of the advantages of teamwork.

3.    Encourage active learning.

Motivational models and theories along with Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory prescribe methods to influence the learner’s belief about their capabilities from working in social settings. Through the observation of behavioral models and learner self-efficacy, success can be achieved at even difficult or ambiguous tasks. Learning is enhanced when the learner can relate the new information to areas of interest, past experiences, and the things that takes place in their regular schedule of activities. People have various styles of learning and activity-oriented learners perform at optimal when the material presented to them will not only assist in remembering it better, but to apply it to new situations.

4.     Gives prompt feedback.

One of the nine steps for the sequence of learning by Gagne’ refers to providing feedback particularly when learners are at their peaked performance. Feedback can motivate the learner with opportunities for improved performance. To use the ‘operant conditioning’ theory of Skinner (1961), feedback can be considered a stimulus that can allow students to reflect on the reinforcement to assess whether their behavior is heading to the desired direction. The cognitivists on the other hand, believe that, in trying to assess themselves, learners use feedback to guide and support accurate mental connections (Thompson et al cited by Ertmer and Newby (1993). This is done in a rather conscious manner where learners carry out self- monitoring or self-evaluation which forms controlled processes to determine whether they have comprehend the information. The learners create their own strategies to help them understand complex topics; a stage Orey (2001) refers to as metacognition.

If there is a delay in providing feedback and new information is introduced the possibility of becoming less motivated to perform due to the absence of the reinforcement may deem the learning process. The article under review however recommends that providing feedback at various points of the learning process is an asset. At the start it can help students to assess existing knowledge whereas at the end students can carry out their self-evaluation.  

5.    Emphasizes tasks on time

There is merit in completing task on time. Learning through the use of computer-based instructions are organized in such a manner that the learner cannot afford to have a backlog of tasks. The way the brain encodes and retrieves information during problem solving processes requires the mastering of early steps before progressing to more complex levels of performance. For ID educators ‘time’ may mean more than just  implementation time for  tasks, but the stage at which the learner is ready to progress through another level. Dr. Ormrod  (2011) reminded us that too much information to encode will create an overload. Ertmer and Newby in presenting cognitive strategies for structuring the instruction recommend “arranging practice with feedback so that the new information is effectively and efficiently assimilated and/or accommodated within the learners cognitive structure”(Stepich & Newby,1988). This supports my view that learning is a combination of a process and a product and the ID educator can make the process more observable for evaluation by providing similar situations that allow the learner to use unfamiliar information to apply to a familiar context.

 

6.    Communicate high expectations.

Both the learner and the instructor should aim high and carry out tasks in a manner to achieve excellence. Learners are believed to have mental activities which include goal setting and organizational strategies. The goal statement requested by Walden University prior to the commencement of a program is a strategy which ID educators must mimic to guide with preparations of instructions. In addition to the proper sequencing of instruction, the support team must be activated to help learners accomplish their self-fulfilling prophecy of performing well.

7.      Respects diverse talents and ways of learning.

 We learned earlier that individuals have different learning styles. The behaviorist perspective is concerned about how the association between the stimulus and response is made, strengthened and maintained while the cognitive theories stress the acquisition of knowledge and internal mental structures (Bower & Hilgard,1981, cited by Ertmer and Newby). Both groups emphasizes that conditions within the environment play a relevant role in facilitating learning. To incorporate diverse talents and ways of learning,  Ertmer and Newby advocate that designers should have an adequate repertoire of strategies available with the ability to match the demands of the tasks with an instructional strategy that helps the learner.

        The instructional Designer must give attention to the learning theories to record maximum success from the learners. Regardless of which level or subject area, all the above principles should be taken into consideration for effective and efficient teaching and learning results. In a subsequent article I shall focus on qualities which the environment should have to enhance the learning process.

References:

 Ertmer, P. A., & Newby,T. J. (1993) Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4), 50-71

Laureate Education, Inc. (2010a). Information processing and the brain with Dr. Jeanne Ormrod (proprietary video presentation).

Laureate Education, Inc. (2010b). Information processing and problem solving with Dr. Jeanne Ormrod (proprietary video presentation).

Laureate Education, Inc. (2010c). Timeline of the history of learning (multi-media presentation).

Orey, M. (2001). Information processing. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Information_processing

Ormrod, J., Schunk, D., & Gredler, M. (2009). Learning theories and instruction (Laureate custom edition). New York: Pearson.

Smith, M. K. (1999) 'Learning theory', the encyclopedia of informal education, www.infed.org/biblio/b-learn.htm, Last update: June 18, 2009

Instructional Design for Walden Classmates

        Education is an ongoing process. Educational professionals are charged with an overall responsibility to engage learners in dynamic learning environments to record maximum success from participants. As intended instructional designers, deliberate effort for acquiring the necessary competencies and expertise to become more effective is a priority. It is in this regard, that three articles have been strategically selected and presented on separate blog sites to enhance your knowledge and attitude as you work in the instructional design field. It is hoped that subsequent presentations will provide you with necessary skills for this profession.
1. The first article by Chickering and Gamson (1987), entitled Seven Principles of Good  Learning, provides detailed information that can improve teaching and learning skills. The writers, are from “The American Higher Education Association” and prepared these principles for students of undergraduate education. However the content suits instructional designers who would agree that it is necessary to embrace information which identify ways to produce an environment that is conducive to improving learning conditions. There is also a focus on how these principles can be integrated to form powerful forces in education. An awareness of these seven principles of good practice should prepare students to understand how to deal intelligently with modern life.

      2.  How people learn has been explored by several psychologists who have allowed teachers for centuries to use their research, but, with the emergence of e-learning practices there appears to be an increased desire to understand the factors which contribute to the learning process. The first article from Internet Time Blog Archives on “How People Learn” which was posted by Jay Cross in June 2010 provides answers to both theoretical and practical dimensions of learning. Jay Cross has been passionate about harnessing technology to improve adult learning from the sixties. With focus on the doing aspect of learning, Cross refers to the relationship between the brain, mind, school and the environment with a view that knowledge is constructed rather than transferred.  The seven principles of learning have been dissected to reveal the conditions which are optimal for effective learning and should guide our effort to achieving educational goals. Among other useful tips for learners, information to assist with self-examination of ones learning style using perspectives of Blooms Taxonomy is available.

     3. The final article is also derived from Internet Time Blog and is of utmost importance to designers. The content for “I am a designer” provides information which is applicable to whatever field of instructional designing one engages in but makes specific reference to instructional design as a replacement for instructional systems design (IUD). Various elements of designing as tradeoffs, history, principles of designs are featured to give the novice designer a feel of their expectations. The article is not limited to the information presented, but provides numerous hyperlinks for easy access to further research on related topics. I would therefore recommend that individuals should to subscribe to these blogs.